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Chapter Outlines

Chapter 3: Biological Bases of Behavior

Neuroanatomy
1. Neuroanatomy
  1. The study of the parts and functions of nerves
  2. Neurons
    1. individual nerve cells
2. Parts of the Neuron
  1. Dendrites
    1. root like parts of the cell
    2. stretch out from the cell body
    3. grow to make synaptic connections with other neurons
  2. Cell body (soma)
    1. contains the nucleus and other parts of the cell necessary for its life
  3. Axon
    1. wire like structure ending in the terminal buttons
    3. extend from the cell body
  4. Myelin sheath
    1. a fatty covering around the axon of some neurons that speeds neural impulses
  5. Terminal buttons
    1. end buttons, terminal branches of axon, synaptic knobs
    2. branched end of the axon
    3. contains neurotransmitters
  6. Neurotransmitters
    1. chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate
  7. Synapse
    1. the space between the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron
How a Neuron “Fires”
1. Resting State
  1. Neuron has negative charge with positive ions surrounding the cell
2. Steps
  1. Neuron is stimulated
    1. it releases neurotransmitters
  2. Neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites on the dendrites of the receiving neuron
  3. If the threshold is reached, the cell membrane of the receiving neuron becomes permeable
    1. positive ions rush in
    2. action potential
  4. Axons release neurotransmitters to another neuron
3. All-or-None Principle
  1. The neuron will fire completely or not at all
4. Neurotransmitters
  1. Acetylcholine
    1. motor movement
    2. lack → Alzheimer’s
  2. Dopamine
    1. motor movement and alertness
    2. lack → Parkinson’s disease
    3. too much → schizophrenia
  3. Endorphins
    1. pain control
    2. involved in addiction
  4. Serotonin
    1. mood control
    2. lack → clinical depression
Nervous System
1. Afferent Neurons (Sensory Neurons)
  1. Take information from the senses to the brain
2. Interneurons
  1. Send information to elsewhere in the brain or to efferent neurons
3. Efferent (Motor) Neurons
  1. Take information from the brain to the rest of the body
4. Central Nervous System (CNS)
  1. Consists of the brain and the spinal cord
    1. spinal cord- a bundle of nerves
5. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
  1. All nerves not encased in bone
  2. Somatic
    1. controls voluntary muscle movements
  3. Autonomic
    1. controls responses to stress
    2. sympathetic arouses
    3. parasympathetic calms
  4. Our pain reflexes help prevent us from harming ourselves
Brain
1. Ways to Study it
  1. Accidents
    1. studying the effects
  2. Lesions
    1. the removal or destruction of part of the brain
    2. studying the effects
  3. Electroencephalogram (EEG)
    1. detects brain waves
    2. examines brain waves in different stages of consciousness, especially sleep
  4. Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scan
    1. sophisticated x-ray
    2. shows brain structure
    3. uses x-ray cameras to get a 3-D picture
  5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
    1. shows brain structure
    2. uses magnetic fields to measure the density and location of brain material
    3. no radiation
    4. more detailed than a CAT scan
  6. Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Scan
    1. shows how much of a certain chemical parts of the brain are using
    2. measures which parts of the brain are most active during certain tasks
  7. Functional MRI
    1. ties brain structure to brain activity during cognitive tasks
    2. combines elements of MRI and PET
2. Brain Structure and Function
  1. Hindbrain
    1. controls basic biological functions that keep us alive
    2. medulla
      1. controls blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing
    3. pons
      1. controls facial expressions
      2. connects the hindbrain with the rest of the brain
    4. cerebellum
      1. “little brain”
      2. coordinates muscle movement
      3. on the bottom of the brain
  2. Midbrain
    1. coordinates simple movements with sensory information
    2. integrates sensory information and muscle movements
    3. reticular formation
      1. controls general body arousal and the ability to focus our attention
  3. Forebrain
    1. controls thought and reason
    2. thalamus
      1. receives sensory signals coming up the spinal cord and sends them to other forebrain areas
    3. hypothalamus
      1. controls hunger, sexual arousal, thirst, and the endocrine system
    4. amygdala
      1. vital for emotion
    5. hippocampus
      1. vital for memory and retaining new information
3. Cerebral Cortex
  1. Gray wrinkled surface of the brain
    1. the wrinkles are called fissures
      1. increase available surface area
  2. Hemispheres
    1. contralateral control
      1. left hemisphere- right half of body
      2. right hemisphere- left half
    2. brain lateralization (hemispheric specialization)
      1. the specialization of function in each hemisphere
    3. split brain patients
      1. the corpus collosum has been cut to treat severe epilepsy
      2. can’t orally report information presented to only the right hemisphere of the brain
  3. Association area
    1. any area of the cerebral cortex not associated with receiving sensory information or controlling muscle movements
  4. Frontal lobes
    1. prefrontal cortex
      1. at front of frontal lobe
      2. brain’s central executive
      3. foreseeing consequences, pursuing goals, and emotional control
    2. Broca’s area
      1. left hemisphere of frontal lobe
      2. controls the muscles involved in producing speech
    3. motor cortex
      1. at the back of the frontal lobe
      2. controls our voluntary movements
      3. top controls toes, bottom controls top of body
  5. Parietal lobes
    1. sensory (somato-sensory) cortex
      1. right behind the motor cortex
      2. receives incoming touch sensations
      3. top receives information from the bottom of the body
  6. Occipital lobes
    1. interprets messages from the eyes in the visual cortex
    2. messages in the left half of the retina go the to right visual cortex
  7. Temporal lobes
    1. process sound
    2. sound waves are processed by the ears and turned into neural impulses that temporal lobes interpret
4. Brain Plasticity
  1. Parts of the brain can adapt to perform other functions
  2. Because dendrites grow throughout our lives
  3. Younger brains are more plastic
Endocrine System
1. Adrenal Glands
  1. Produce adrenaline → “fight or flight” prep
2. Ovaries and Testes
  1. Produce sex hormones
  2. May explain gender differences
3. Controlled by the hypothalamus
Basic Genetic Concepts
1. Twins
  1. Identical (monozygotic) twins
    1. effective psychological environment
      1. physical similarity in twins causes them to be treated the same way
2. Chromosomal Abnormalities
  1. Turner’s Syndrome
    1. only single X chromosome
    2. causes shortness, webbed necks, and different sexual development
  2. Klinefelter’s Syndrome
    1. XXY chromosome pattern
    2. causes minimal sexual development and extreme introversion
  3. Down’s Syndrome
    1. extra chromosome on 21^st pair
    2. intellectual disability

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Aboukhadijeh, Feross. "Chapter 3: Biological Bases of Behavior" StudyNotes.org. Study Notes, LLC., 12 Oct. 2013. Web. 06 Oct. 2024. <https://www.apstudynotes.org/psychology/outlines/chapter-3-biological-bases-of-behavior/>.

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Chapter 3: Biological Bases of Behavior

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